(** * Logic: Logic in Coq *) Require Export MoreCoq. (** Coq's built-in logic is very small: the only primitives are [Inductive] definitions, universal quantification ([forall]), and implication ([->]), while all the other familiar logical connectives -- conjunction, disjunction, negation, existential quantification, even equality -- can be encoded using just these. This chapter explains the encodings and shows how the tactics we've seen can be used to carry out standard forms of logical reasoning involving these connectives. *) (* ########################################################### *) (** * Propositions *) (** In previous chapters, we have seen many examples of factual claims (_propositions_) and ways of presenting evidence of their truth (_proofs_). In particular, we have worked extensively with _equality propositions_ of the form [e1 = e2], with implications ([P -> Q]), and with quantified propositions ([forall x, P]). *) (** In Coq, the type of things that can (potentially) be proven is [Prop]. *) (** Here is an example of a provable proposition: *) Check (3 = 3). (* ===> Prop *) (** Here is an example of an unprovable proposition: *) Check (forall (n:nat), n = 2). (* ===> Prop *) (** Recall that [Check] asks Coq to tell us the type of the indicated expression. *) (* ########################################################### *) (** * Proofs and Evidence *) (** In Coq, propositions have the same status as other types, such as [nat]. Just as the natural numbers [0], [1], [2], etc. inhabit the type [nat], a Coq proposition [P] is inhabited by its _proofs_. We will refer to such inhabitants as _proof term_ or _proof object_ or _evidence_ for the truth of [P]. In Coq, when we state and then prove a lemma such as: Lemma silly : 0 * 3 = 0. Proof. reflexivity. Qed. the tactics we use within the [Proof]...[Qed] keywords tell Coq how to construct a proof term that inhabits the proposition. In this case, the proposition [0 * 3 = 0] is justified by a combination of the _definition_ of [mult], which says that [0 * 3] _simplifies_ to just [0], and the _reflexive_ principle of equality, which says that [0 = 0]. *) (** *** *) Lemma silly : 0 * 3 = 0. Proof. reflexivity. Qed. (** We can see which proof term Coq constructs for a given Lemma by using the [Print] directive: *) Print silly. (* ===> silly = eq_refl : 0 * 3 = 0 *) (** Here, the [eq_refl] proof term witnesses the equality. (More on equality later!)*) (** ** Implications _are_ functions *) (** Just as we can implement natural number multiplication as a function: [ mult : nat -> nat -> nat ] The _proof term_ for an implication [P -> Q] is a _function_ that takes evidence for [P] as input and produces evidence for [Q] as its output. *) Lemma silly_implication : (1 + 1) = 2 -> 0 * 3 = 0. Proof. intros H. reflexivity. Qed. (** We can see that the proof term for the above lemma is indeed a function: *) Print silly_implication. (* ===> silly_implication = fun _ : 1 + 1 = 2 => eq_refl : 1 + 1 = 2 -> 0 * 3 = 0 *) (** ** Defining Propositions *) (** Just as we can create user-defined inductive types (like the lists, binary representations of natural numbers, etc., that we seen before), we can also create _user-defined_ propositions. Question: How do you define the meaning of a proposition? *) (** *** *) (** The meaning of a proposition is given by _rules_ and _definitions_ that say how to construct _evidence_ for the truth of the proposition from other evidence. - Typically, rules are defined _inductively_, just like any other datatype. - Sometimes a proposition is declared to be true without substantiating evidence. Such propositions are called _axioms_. In this, and subsequence chapters, we'll see more about how these proof terms work in more detail. *) (* ########################################################### *) (** * Conjunction (Logical "and") *) (** The logical conjunction of propositions [P] and [Q] can be represented using an [Inductive] definition with one constructor. *) Inductive and (P Q : Prop) : Prop := conj : P -> Q -> (and P Q). (** The intuition behind this definition is simple: to construct evidence for [and P Q], we must provide evidence for [P] and evidence for [Q]. More precisely: - [conj p q] can be taken as evidence for [and P Q] if [p] is evidence for [P] and [q] is evidence for [Q]; and - this is the _only_ way to give evidence for [and P Q] -- that is, if someone gives us evidence for [and P Q], we know it must have the form [conj p q], where [p] is evidence for [P] and [q] is evidence for [Q]. Since we'll be using conjunction a lot, let's introduce a more familiar-looking infix notation for it. *) Notation "P /\ Q" := (and P Q) : type_scope. (** (The [type_scope] annotation tells Coq that this notation will be appearing in propositions, not values.) *) (** Consider the "type" of the constructor [conj]: *) Check conj. (* ===> forall P Q : Prop, P -> Q -> P /\ Q *) (** Notice that it takes 4 inputs -- namely the propositions [P] and [Q] and evidence for [P] and [Q] -- and returns as output the evidence of [P /\ Q]. *) (** ** "Introducing" Conjuctions *) (** Besides the elegance of building everything up from a tiny foundation, what's nice about defining conjunction this way is that we can prove statements involving conjunction using the tactics that we already know. For example, if the goal statement is a conjuction, we can prove it by applying the single constructor [conj], which (as can be seen from the type of [conj]) solves the current goal and leaves the two parts of the conjunction as subgoals to be proved separately. *) Theorem and_example : (0 = 0) /\ (4 = mult 2 2). Proof. apply conj. Case "left". reflexivity. Case "right". reflexivity. Qed. (** Just for convenience, we can use the tactic [split] as a shorthand for [apply conj]. *) Theorem and_example' : (0 = 0) /\ (4 = mult 2 2). Proof. split. Case "left". reflexivity. Case "right". reflexivity. Qed. (** ** "Eliminating" conjunctions *) (** Conversely, the [inversion] tactic can be used to take a conjunction hypothesis in the context, calculate what evidence must have been used to build it, and add variables representing this evidence to the proof context. *) Theorem proj1 : forall P Q : Prop, P /\ Q -> P. Proof. intros P Q H. inversion H as [HP HQ]. apply HP. Qed. (** **** Exercise: 1 star, optional (proj2) *) Theorem proj2 : forall P Q : Prop, P /\ Q -> Q. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) Theorem and_commut : forall P Q : Prop, P /\ Q -> Q /\ P. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros P Q H. inversion H as [HP HQ]. split. Case "left". apply HQ. Case "right". apply HP. Qed. (** **** Exercise: 2 stars (and_assoc) *) (** In the following proof, notice how the _nested pattern_ in the [inversion] breaks the hypothesis [H : P /\ (Q /\ R)] down into [HP: P], [HQ : Q], and [HR : R]. Finish the proof from there: *) Theorem and_assoc : forall P Q R : Prop, P /\ (Q /\ R) -> (P /\ Q) /\ R. Proof. intros P Q R H. inversion H as [HP [HQ HR]]. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (* ###################################################### *) (** * Iff *) (** The handy "if and only if" connective is just the conjunction of two implications. *) Definition iff (P Q : Prop) := (P -> Q) /\ (Q -> P). Notation "P <-> Q" := (iff P Q) (at level 95, no associativity) : type_scope. Theorem iff_implies : forall P Q : Prop, (P <-> Q) -> P -> Q. Proof. intros P Q H. inversion H as [HAB HBA]. apply HAB. Qed. Theorem iff_sym : forall P Q : Prop, (P <-> Q) -> (Q <-> P). Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros P Q H. inversion H as [HAB HBA]. split. Case "->". apply HBA. Case "<-". apply HAB. Qed. (** **** Exercise: 1 star, optional (iff_properties) *) (** Using the above proof that [<->] is symmetric ([iff_sym]) as a guide, prove that it is also reflexive and transitive. *) Theorem iff_refl : forall P : Prop, P <-> P. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. Theorem iff_trans : forall P Q R : Prop, (P <-> Q) -> (Q <-> R) -> (P <-> R). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** Hint: If you have an iff hypothesis in the context, you can use [inversion] to break it into two separate implications. (Think about why this works.) *) (** [] *) (** Some of Coq's tactics treat [iff] statements specially, thus avoiding the need for some low-level manipulation when reasoning with them. In particular, [rewrite] can be used with [iff] statements, not just equalities. *) (* ############################################################ *) (** * Disjunction (Logical "or") *) (** ** Implementing Disjunction *) (** Disjunction ("logical or") can also be defined as an inductive proposition. *) Inductive or (P Q : Prop) : Prop := | or_introl : P -> or P Q | or_intror : Q -> or P Q. Notation "P \/ Q" := (or P Q) : type_scope. (** Consider the "type" of the constructor [or_introl]: *) Check or_introl. (* ===> forall P Q : Prop, P -> P \/ Q *) (** It takes 3 inputs, namely the propositions [P], [Q] and evidence of [P], and returns, as output, the evidence of [P \/ Q]. Next, look at the type of [or_intror]: *) Check or_intror. (* ===> forall P Q : Prop, Q -> P \/ Q *) (** It is like [or_introl] but it requires evidence of [Q] instead of evidence of [P]. *) (** Intuitively, there are two ways of giving evidence for [P \/ Q]: - give evidence for [P] (and say that it is [P] you are giving evidence for -- this is the function of the [or_introl] constructor), or - give evidence for [Q], tagged with the [or_intror] constructor. *) (** *** *) (** Since [P \/ Q] has two constructors, doing [inversion] on a hypothesis of type [P \/ Q] yields two subgoals. *) Theorem or_commut : forall P Q : Prop, P \/ Q -> Q \/ P. Proof. intros P Q H. inversion H as [HP | HQ]. Case "left". apply or_intror. apply HP. Case "right". apply or_introl. apply HQ. Qed. (** From here on, we'll use the shorthand tactics [left] and [right] in place of [apply or_introl] and [apply or_intror]. *) Theorem or_commut' : forall P Q : Prop, P \/ Q -> Q \/ P. Proof. intros P Q H. inversion H as [HP | HQ]. Case "left". right. apply HP. Case "right". left. apply HQ. Qed. Theorem or_distributes_over_and_1 : forall P Q R : Prop, P \/ (Q /\ R) -> (P \/ Q) /\ (P \/ R). Proof. intros P Q R. intros H. inversion H as [HP | [HQ HR]]. Case "left". split. SCase "left". left. apply HP. SCase "right". left. apply HP. Case "right". split. SCase "left". right. apply HQ. SCase "right". right. apply HR. Qed. (** **** Exercise: 2 stars (or_distributes_over_and_2) *) Theorem or_distributes_over_and_2 : forall P Q R : Prop, (P \/ Q) /\ (P \/ R) -> P \/ (Q /\ R). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (** **** Exercise: 1 star, optional (or_distributes_over_and) *) Theorem or_distributes_over_and : forall P Q R : Prop, P \/ (Q /\ R) <-> (P \/ Q) /\ (P \/ R). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (* ################################################### *) (** ** Relating [/\] and [\/] with [andb] and [orb] (advanced) *) (** We've already seen several places where analogous structures can be found in Coq's computational ([Type]) and logical ([Prop]) worlds. Here is one more: the boolean operators [andb] and [orb] are clearly analogs of the logical connectives [/\] and [\/]. This analogy can be made more precise by the following theorems, which show how to translate knowledge about [andb] and [orb]'s behaviors on certain inputs into propositional facts about those inputs. *) Theorem andb_prop : forall b c, andb b c = true -> b = true /\ c = true. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros b c H. destruct b. Case "b = true". destruct c. SCase "c = true". apply conj. reflexivity. reflexivity. SCase "c = false". inversion H. Case "b = false". inversion H. Qed. Theorem andb_true_intro : forall b c, b = true /\ c = true -> andb b c = true. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros b c H. inversion H. rewrite H0. rewrite H1. reflexivity. Qed. (** **** Exercise: 2 stars, optional (bool_prop) *) Theorem andb_false : forall b c, andb b c = false -> b = false \/ c = false. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. Theorem orb_prop : forall b c, orb b c = true -> b = true \/ c = true. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. Theorem orb_false_elim : forall b c, orb b c = false -> b = false /\ c = false. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (* ################################################### *) (** * Falsehood *) (** Logical falsehood can be represented in Coq as an inductively defined proposition with no constructors. *) Inductive False : Prop := . (** Intuition: [False] is a proposition for which there is no way to give evidence. *) (** Since [False] has no constructors, inverting an assumption of type [False] always yields zero subgoals, allowing us to immediately prove any goal. *) Theorem False_implies_nonsense : False -> 2 + 2 = 5. Proof. intros contra. inversion contra. Qed. (** How does this work? The [inversion] tactic breaks [contra] into each of its possible cases, and yields a subgoal for each case. As [contra] is evidence for [False], it has _no_ possible cases, hence, there are no possible subgoals and the proof is done. *) (** *** *) (** Conversely, the only way to prove [False] is if there is already something nonsensical or contradictory in the context: *) Theorem nonsense_implies_False : 2 + 2 = 5 -> False. Proof. intros contra. inversion contra. Qed. (** Actually, since the proof of [False_implies_nonsense] doesn't actually have anything to do with the specific nonsensical thing being proved; it can easily be generalized to work for an arbitrary [P]: *) Theorem ex_falso_quodlibet : forall (P:Prop), False -> P. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros P contra. inversion contra. Qed. (** The Latin _ex falso quodlibet_ means, literally, "from falsehood follows whatever you please." This theorem is also known as the _principle of explosion_. *) (* #################################################### *) (** ** Truth *) (** Since we have defined falsehood in Coq, one might wonder whether it is possible to define truth in the same way. We can. *) (** **** Exercise: 2 stars, advanced (True) *) (** Define [True] as another inductively defined proposition. (The intution is that [True] should be a proposition for which it is trivial to give evidence.) *) (* FILL IN HERE *) (** [] *) (** However, unlike [False], which we'll use extensively, [True] is used fairly rarely. By itself, it is trivial (and therefore uninteresting) to prove as a goal, and it carries no useful information as a hypothesis. But it can be useful when defining complex [Prop]s using conditionals, or as a parameter to higher-order [Prop]s. *) (* #################################################### *) (** * Negation *) (** The logical complement of a proposition [P] is written [not P] or, for shorthand, [~P]: *) Definition not (P:Prop) := P -> False. (** The intuition is that, if [P] is not true, then anything at all (even [False]) follows from assuming [P]. *) Notation "~ x" := (not x) : type_scope. Check not. (* ===> Prop -> Prop *) (** It takes a little practice to get used to working with negation in Coq. Even though you can see perfectly well why something is true, it can be a little hard at first to get things into the right configuration so that Coq can see it! Here are proofs of a few familiar facts about negation to get you warmed up. *) Theorem not_False : ~ False. Proof. unfold not. intros H. inversion H. Qed. (** *** *) Theorem contradiction_implies_anything : forall P Q : Prop, (P /\ ~P) -> Q. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros P Q H. inversion H as [HP HNA]. unfold not in HNA. apply HNA in HP. inversion HP. Qed. Theorem double_neg : forall P : Prop, P -> ~~P. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros P H. unfold not. intros G. apply G. apply H. Qed. (** **** Exercise: 2 stars, advanced (double_neg_inf) *) (** Write an informal proof of [double_neg]: _Theorem_: [P] implies [~~P], for any proposition [P]. _Proof_: (* FILL IN HERE *) [] *) (** **** Exercise: 2 stars (contrapositive) *) Theorem contrapositive : forall P Q : Prop, (P -> Q) -> (~Q -> ~P). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (** **** Exercise: 1 star (not_both_true_and_false) *) Theorem not_both_true_and_false : forall P : Prop, ~ (P /\ ~P). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (** **** Exercise: 1 star, advanced (informal_not_PNP) *) (** Write an informal proof (in English) of the proposition [forall P : Prop, ~(P /\ ~P)]. *) (* FILL IN HERE *) (** [] *) (** *** Constructive logic *) (** Note that some theorems that are true in classical logic are _not_ provable in Coq's (constructive) logic. E.g., let's look at how this proof gets stuck... *) Theorem classic_double_neg : forall P : Prop, ~~P -> P. Proof. (* WORKED IN CLASS *) intros P H. unfold not in H. (* But now what? There is no way to "invent" evidence for [~P] from evidence for [P]. *) Abort. (** **** Exercise: 5 stars, advanced, optional (classical_axioms) *) (** For those who like a challenge, here is an exercise taken from the Coq'Art book (p. 123). The following five statements are often considered as characterizations of classical logic (as opposed to constructive logic, which is what is "built in" to Coq). We can't prove them in Coq, but we can consistently add any one of them as an unproven axiom if we wish to work in classical logic. Prove that these five propositions are equivalent. *) Definition peirce := forall P Q: Prop, ((P->Q)->P)->P. Definition classic := forall P:Prop, ~~P -> P. Definition excluded_middle := forall P:Prop, P \/ ~P. Definition de_morgan_not_and_not := forall P Q:Prop, ~(~P /\ ~Q) -> P\/Q. Definition implies_to_or := forall P Q:Prop, (P->Q) -> (~P\/Q). (* FILL IN HERE *) (** [] *) (** **** Exercise: 3 stars (excluded_middle_irrefutable) *) (** This theorem implies that it is always safe to add a decidability axiom (i.e. an instance of excluded middle) for any _particular_ Prop [P]. Why? Because we cannot prove the negation of such an axiom; if we could, we would have both [~ (P \/ ~P)] and [~ ~ (P \/ ~P)], a contradiction. *) Theorem excluded_middle_irrefutable: forall (P:Prop), ~ ~ (P \/ ~ P). Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (* ########################################################## *) (** ** Inequality *) (** Saying [x <> y] is just the same as saying [~(x = y)]. *) Notation "x <> y" := (~ (x = y)) : type_scope. (** Since inequality involves a negation, it again requires a little practice to be able to work with it fluently. Here is one very useful trick. If you are trying to prove a goal that is nonsensical (e.g., the goal state is [false = true]), apply the lemma [ex_falso_quodlibet] to change the goal to [False]. This makes it easier to use assumptions of the form [~P] that are available in the context -- in particular, assumptions of the form [x<>y]. *) Theorem not_false_then_true : forall b : bool, b <> false -> b = true. Proof. intros b H. destruct b. Case "b = true". reflexivity. Case "b = false". unfold not in H. apply ex_falso_quodlibet. apply H. reflexivity. Qed. (** *** *) (** *** *) (** *** *) (** *** *) (** *** *) (** **** Exercise: 2 stars (false_beq_nat) *) Theorem false_beq_nat : forall n m : nat, n <> m -> beq_nat n m = false. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (** **** Exercise: 2 stars, optional (beq_nat_false) *) Theorem beq_nat_false : forall n m, beq_nat n m = false -> n <> m. Proof. (* FILL IN HERE *) Admitted. (** [] *) (* $Date: 2013-10-12 18:54:54 -0500 (Sat, 12 Oct 2013) $ *)